CARPOOLING AS A SUSTAINABLE TRANSPORT SOLUTION IN DEVELOPING-COUNTRY CITIES: SOCIO-DEMOGRAPHIC, ECONOMIC AND TECHNOLOGICAL PERSPECTIVES

Abstract

Urbanization, and the increasing number of private vehicles, has exacerbated urban transport problems in developing countries. Lack of public transport has also stimulated an interest in low cost measures, such as car pool. This research looks at the literature about carpooling and car-sharing adoption and attempts to answer two questions. It begins by inquiring about the socio-demographic, economic and technological factors related to people’s willingness to use carpooling. Second, it explores the similarities and differences of these associations between developed and developing country settings, with specific focus on Pakistan. After screening, approximately 80 studies were found and 63 were included in a systematic search for review using keywords in the major academic databases. The review reveals that education level and household size are generally positive predictors of carpooling willingness and that income, commute distance, and travel cost are negative predictors, with the magnitude of these relationships being dependent on the context, and only a few studies testing for confounding or common-method bias. Results of an empirical research study undertaken in Faisalabad, Pakistan are discussed in detail and compared with the general international evidence, which is critically evaluated in terms of sample size, generalizability and measurement limitations. The review also contextualizes the concept of carpooling into the smart mobility framework and its underlying technologies such as IoT, AI and blockchain based trust systems. It ends with a consideration of the methodological shortcomings in the current evidence base and the policy directions and future research that this critically appraised evidence base informs.